I was curious to see what policies other countries had regarding women in their military (after the US announced it would finally allow women to serve in combat roles.)
Eritrea: Female soldiers in Eritrea played a
large role in both the Eritrean civil war and the border dispute with Ethiopia,
because they make up more than 25% of the Eritrean military.
Libya: A 200-strong unit was Muammar
al-Gaddafi's personal bodyguard and is called variously the "Green
Nuns" and "The Amazonian Guard" or more commonly in Libya The
Revolutionary Nuns
The Gambia: Military of The Gambia have no gender
conscription and women are free to volunteer for the armed forces. In 2011 the
first female army general was decorated.
Australia: The first women became involved with the
Australian armed forces with the creation of the Army Nursing Service in 1899.
Currently, women make up 12.8% of the Australian Defence Force (with 15.1% in
the Royal Australian Air Force, 14.6% in the Royal Australian Navy and 10.5% in
the Australian Army) and 17.5% of the reserves. However, only 74% of the total
number of available roles in the Australian armed forces are available to
women. Despite this, using 1998-99 figures, the ADF had the highest percentage
of women in its employ in the world. In
1998, Australia became the fourth nation in the world to allow women to serve
on its submarines. Like many other
countries, Australia does not currently permit women to serve in the following
military positions involving 'direct combat', as defined by the 1983 Convention
on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): Clearance diving teams, Infantry
including Special Forces, Armour, Artillery, Combat Engineers, Airfield Defence
Guards or Ground Defence Officers. Women can serve in combat units or at times
in combat, but they currently cannot serve in combat roles in combat units. On 27 September 2011, Defence Minister Stephen
Smith announced that women will be allowed to serve in frontline combat roles
by 2016.
Israel: Some women served in various positions
in the IDF, including infantry, radio operators and transport pilots in the
1948 War of Independence and "Operation Kadesh" in 1956, but later
the Air Force closed its ranks to female pilots, and women were restricted from
combat positions. There is a draft of both men and women. Most women serve in
non-combat positions, and are conscripted for two years (instead of three for
men). A landmark high court appeal in 1994 forced the Air Force to accept women
air cadets. In 2001, Israel's first female combat pilot received her wings. In
1999 the Caracal company was formed, as a non segregated infantry company. In
2000 it was expanded into a Battalion since then, further combat positions have
opened to women, including Artillery, Field Intelligence, Search and Rescue,
NBC, Border Patrol, K-9 Unit and anti-aircraft warfare. On May 26, 2011, IDF
Chief of Staff Benny Gantz announced Brigadier General Orna Barbivay's
appointment as the next Head of the IDF Personnel Directorate. Barbivay was
promoted to Major General, thus becoming the most senior female officer in the
history of the IDF.
New Zealand: New Zealand has no restrictions on roles
for women in its defence force. They are able to serve in the Special Air
Service, infantry, armour and artillery. This came into effect in 2001 by
subordinate legislation. Though, no woman has ever made it into the Special Air
Service.
People's Republic of
China: Women have long served in
armies dating from the ancient period of 5,000 years ago to present day. Female
comprise an estimated 7.5% of the People's Liberation Army forces.
Singapore: Allows women to serve in combat roles,
although females are not conscripted.
Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) was the first
service of the Sri Lankan military to allow women to serve, accepting female
recruits to the Sri Lanka Volunteer Air Force in 1972. The Sri Lanka Army
followed in 1979 with the establishment of the Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps
(SLAWC). Since then, each service has for both administrative and practical
reasons maintained separate units for women. These are the SLAWC and the SLAF
Women's Wing; the Sri Lanka Navy does not have a specific name for women's
units. In order to maintain discipline, all three services have women MPs
attached to their respective military police/provost corps.
Thailand: Has recently
begun recruiting and training women to conduct counter-insurgency operations. A
ranger commander said that when women are protesting, "It is better for women
to do the talking. Male soldiers look tough and aggressive. When women go and
talk, people tend to be more relaxed".
Denmark: Women were
employed in the Danish armed forces as early as 1934 with the Ground Observer
Corps, Danish Women’s Army Corps and Naval Corps in 1946 and the Women’s Air
Force since 1953. In 1962, the Danish parliament passed laws allowing women to
volunteer in the regular Danish armed forces as long as they did not serve in
units experiencing direct combat. 1971 saw the enlistment of women as
non-commissioned officers, with military academies allowing women in 1974. In
1978, based on the reports of studies on the topic, women were allowed to
enlist in an all areas of the Danish armed forces, with combat trials in the
eighties exploring the capabilities of women in combat. In 1998, laws were
passed allowing women to sample military life in the same way as conscripted
men, however without being completely open to conscription. Women in the Danish
military come under the command of the Chief of Defense. As of January 2010,
women make up 5% of the army, 6.9% of the navy, and 8.6% of air force
personnel.
Finland: The Finnish Defense Forces does not
conscript women. However, since 1995, women between 18 and 30 years of age have
the possibility of voluntarily undertaking military service in the Defence
Forces or in the Border Guard. Women generally serve under the same conditions
as men. The non-combat duties in Finnish Defence Forces peace-keeping
operations opened to women in 1991. Since 1995 the women are allowed to serve
in all combat arms including front-line infantry and special forces both in
Finland and in operations outside Finland.
France: In the 1800s, women in the French military
were responsible for preparing meals for soldiers, and were called cantinières.
They sold food to soldiers beyond that which was given to them as rations.
Cantinières had commissions from the administrators of the regiments, and they
were required to be married to a soldier of the regiment. They served near the
front lines on active campaigns, and some served for as long as 30 years. The
role of women in the French military grew in 1914 with the recruitment of women
as medical personnel (Service de Santé des Armées). In 1939, they were
authorized to enlist with the armed service branches, and in 1972 their status
evolved to share the same ranks as those of men. Nonetheless, women are still
not permitted to join the field combat units or to be aboard the submarines of
the French navy. Today women make up around 15% of all service personnel in the
combined branches of the French military. They are 11% of the Army forces, 13%
for the Navy, 21% of the Air Force and 50% of the Medical Corps. This is the
highest proportion of female personnel in Europe.
Germany: Since the creation of the Bundeswehr in
1955, Germany had employed one of the most conservative gender-policies of any
NATO country. That was generally regarded as a reaction to the deployment of
young women at the end of World War II. Though women were exempt from direct
combat functions in accordance with Nazi-ideology, several hundred thousand
German women, along with young boys and sometimes girls (as Flakhelfer), served
in Luftwaffe artillery units; their flak shot down thousands of Allied
warplanes. In the year 1975 the first female medical officers were appointed in
the Sanitätsdienst of the Bundeswehr. Since 1994, two women, Verena von Weymarn
and Erika Franke, attained the rank of Generalarzt. But it was not until
January 2001 that women first joined German combat units, following a court
ruling by the European Court of Justice. There are no restrictions regarding
the branch of service, and there are women serving in the Fallschirmjäger,
aboard U-Boats and Tornado fighter
planes.
Ireland: The Defence Act, 1979, allowed women to
join the Irish Defence Forces for the first time and was passed by the
Oireachtas in 1979. There are no restrictions for women to the "full range
of operational and administrative duties." As of January 2010 the number
of women in the Permanent Defence Forces is 565, 5.7 percent of the total.
Norway: Women in Norway have been able to fill
military roles since 1938, and during the Second World War both enlisted women
and female officers served in all branches of the military. However in 1947
political changes commanded that women only serve in civilian posts, with
reservists allowing women to join them in 1959. Female personnel currently make
up around 7% of the army. Between 1977 and 1984, the Norwegian Parliament
passed laws expanding the role of women in the Norwegian Armed Forces, and in
1985 equal opportunities legislation was applied to the military. In 1995,
Norway became the first country to allow women to serve on its military
submarines, and to this date there has been at least one female commander of a
Norwegian submarine.
Poland: Women have taken part in the battles for
independence against occupiers and invaders since at least the time of the Napoleonic
Wars. During the occupation by the Nazis, 1939–1945, several thousand women
took part in the resistance movement as members of the Home Army. The Germans
were forced to establish special prisoner-of-war camps after the Warsaw Rising
in 1944 to accommodate over a thousand women prisoners. In April 1938 the law
requiring compulsory military service for men included provisions for voluntary
service of women in auxiliary roles, in the medical services, in the
anti-aircraft artillery and in communications. In 1939 a Women's Military
Training Organization was established under the command of Maria Wittek. In
present Poland a law passed April 6, 2004 requires all women with college
nursing or veterinary degrees to register for compulsory service. In addition
it allows women to volunteer and serve as professional personnel in all
services of the army. As of June 30, 2007 there are 800 women in the army, of
which 471 are officers, 308 non-commissioned officers and 21 other ranks, in
addition 225 are in military training schools. Two active duty Polish women
have achieved the rank of Colonel. Maria Wittek was the 1st Polish woman to reach
the rank of General.
Russia: During
the First World War, heavy defeats led to the loss of millions of Russian
Imperial soldiers. To psychologically energize morale Alexander Kerensky
(leader of Russia of the Russian Provisional Government) ordered the creation
of the Woman’s Death Battalion in May 1917. After three months of fighting, the
size of this all-female unit fell from 2,000 to 250. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks dissolved
the unit. Shortly after Russia became part of the Soviet Union till December
1991. In 2002, 10% of the Russian armed forces (100,000 of a total active
strength of 988,100) were women. However continuing attitudes towards women in
Russian life are demonstrated by activities such as Miss Russian Army. The
current tally of woman in the Russian Army is standing at around 115,000 to 160,000,
representing 10% of Russia’s military strength.
Soviet Union: Women played a large part in most of the
armed forces of the Second World War. In most countries though, women tended to
serve mostly in administrative, medical and in auxiliary roles. But in the
Soviet Union women fought in larger numbers in front line roles. Over 800,000
women served in the Soviet armed forces in World War II; nearly 200,000 of them
were decorated and 89 of them eventually received the Soviet Union’s highest
award, the Hero of the Soviet Union. They served as pilots, snipers, machine
gunners, tank crew members and partisans, as well as in auxiliary roles. Very
few of these women, however, were ever promoted to officers. Women consistituted significant numbers of
the Soviet partisans. One of the most famous was Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya, who
earned the Hero of the Soviet Union award (February 16, 1942). After the war,
most women left the armed forces. Those that stayed to make a career in the
post-war armed forces saw old attitudes return and promotion and opportunities
more difficult. Also, some military academies closed their doors to women
despite the supposed official policy of equality. In 1967, the Russian
Universal Military Duty Laws concluded that women offered the greater source of
available combat soldiers during periods of large scale mobilisation. Thus,
several programs during the height of the Cold War were set up to encourage
women to enlist. Participation in military orientated youth programs and forced
participation in the reserves for ex-servicewomen up to the age of 40 are some
examples. Universities contained reservist officer training which accompanied a
place in the reserves themselves, especially for doctors. But some roles open
to women during the war were later barred.
Serbia: Although the Serbian armed forces were
traditionally exclusively male (with exception of nurses and some other
non-combat roles) there were some exceptions. Several women are known to have
fought in the ranks in the Balkan Wars and the First World War, often by
initially hiding their gender to work around the draft regulations. The most
notable of them was Milunka Savić, the most decorated female combatant in
history. In the Second World War Yugoslav partisan units accepted female
volunteers as combatants as well as medical personnel. After the war the
practice was abandoned, but was reintroduced recently with professionalisation
of the army.
Sweden: Since 1989 there are no gender
restrictions in the Swedish military on access to military training or
positions. They are allowed to serve in all parts of the military and in all positions,
including combat. Female personnel currently make up around 5% of the army.
Turkey: Sabiha Gökçen was the first female
combat pilot in the world, as well as the first Turkish female aviator. She was
one of the eight adoptive children of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Throughout her
career in the Turkish Air Force, Gökçen flew 22 different types of aircraft for
more than 8,000 hours, 32 hours of which were active combat and bombardment
missions. She was selected as the only female pilot for the poster of "20
Greatest Aviators in History" published by the United States Air Force in
1996. Women personnel are being employed as officers in the Turkish Armed
Forces today. The women officers serve together with the men under the same
respective chains of command. The personnel policy regarding women in the
Turkish Armed Forces is based on the principle of "needing qualified women
officers in suitable branches and ranks" to keep pace with technological
advancements in the 21st century. Women civilian personnel have been assigned
to the headquarters staff, technical fields, and social services without sexual
discrimination. Women officers serve in all branches except armor, infantry,
and submarines. Assignments, promotions and training are considered on an equal
basis with no gender bias. As of the year 2005, the number of the female
officers and NCOs in the Turkish Armed Forces is 1245.
Ukraine: Women (on active duty) make almost 13% of
the Armed Forces of Ukraine (18.000 persons); 7% of those are officers. This
number is close to NATO armies statistics. Ukraine shows better results in
military gender equality than countries like Norway (7%), United Kingdom (9%)
or Sweden (5%). There are few female high officers, 2,9% (1.202 women). There are no females among Ukraine’s generals
while there are a dozen female colonels. Contractual military service counts for almost
44% of women. However, this is closely linked to the low salary of such
positions: men refuse to serve in these conditions when women accept them. In
total about 25 percent of Ukraine’s 200,000 military personnel are women. Servicewomen
live in woman-only apartments near the military bases. A female officer can
take three years’ maternity leave without losing her position.
United Kingdom: Women were first employed by the Royal
Navy in 1696 when a handful were employed as nurses and laundresses on hospital
ships. They received pay equal to an able seaman. The practice was always controversial and over
the next two centuries first the nurses and the laundresses were removed from
service. By the start of the 19th
century both roles had been eliminated. Female service in the Royal Navy
restarted 1884 when the Naval Nursing Service was formed. It became the Queen
Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service in 1902 and is still in operation.
Women have had active roles in the British Army since 1902, when the Queen
Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps was founded. The Princess Mary's Royal Air
Force Nursing Service was formed in 1918 During the Second World War, about
600,000 women served in the three British women's auxiliary services: the
Auxiliary Territorial Service, the Women's Auxiliary Air Force, and the Women's
Royal Naval Service, as well as the nursing corps. In 1949, women were
officially recognized as a permanent part of British Armed forces, although
full combat roles were still restricted to men. In this year, the Women's Royal
Army Corps was created to replace the ATS and in 1950 the ranks were normalised
with the ranks of men serving in the British Army. From 1949 to 1992, thousands more served in
the Women's Royal Army Corps and sister institutions. Women first became
eligible to pilot Royal Air Force combat aircraft in 1989. The following year,
they were permitted to serve on Royal Navy warships. The 1991 Gulf War marked
the first deployment of British women in combat operations since 1945. After 1992, the women were integrated into regular
units. Women may now join the British
Armed forces in all roles except those whose "primary duty is to close
with and kill the enemy": Infantry, Household Cavalry, Royal Armoured
Corps, Royal Marines Commandos, RAF Regiment, Special Air Service and Special
Boat Service. They are also excluded from service in the Royal Navy Submarine
Service and as Royal Navy Clearance divers. Thus, despite being the first and
thus far only woman to pass the All Arms Commando Course (in May 2002), then
Captain Philippa Tattersall can only serve in 3 Commando Brigade in a support
role. Female personnel currently make up around 9% of the British armed forces.
However, female combatants can be found
throughout Britain’s military history.
Canada: During the First World War, over 2,300 women
served overseas in the Canadian Army Medical Corps. During the Second World
War, 5,000 women of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps again served
overseas, however they were not permitted to serve on combat warships or in
combat teams. The Canadian Army Women's Corps was created during the Second
World War, as was the Royal Canadian Air Force (Women's Division). As well,
45,000 women served as support staff in every theatre of the conflict, driving
heavy equipment, rigging parachutes, and performing clerical work, telephone
operation, laundry duties and cooking. Some 5,000 women performed similar
occupations during Canada’s part in the Korean War of 1950–1953. In 1965 the Canadian government
decided to allow a maximum of 1,500 women to serve directly in all three
branches of its armed forces, and the former "women's services" were
disbanded. In 1970 the government created a set of rules for the armed forces
designed to encourage equal opportunities. In 1974 the first woman, Major Wendy
Clay, earned her pilot's wings in the newly integrated Canadian Forces. Between 1979 and 1985 the role of
women expanded further, with military colleges allowing women to enroll. In
1982 laws were passed ending all discrimination in employment, and combat
related roles in the Canadian armed forces were opened for women, with the
exception of the submarine service. In 1986 further laws were created to the
same effect. The following years saw Canada’s first female infantry soldier,
and a female Brigadier-General.In 1989, a tribunal appointed under the Canadian
Human Rights Act ordered full integration of women in the Canadian Armed Forces
"with all due speed", at least within the next ten years. Only
submarines were to remain closed to women. Women were permitted to serve on
board Canadian submarines in 2002 with the acquisition of the Victoria-class
submarine. Master Seaman Colleen Beattie became the first female submariner in
2003.
United States: During
the American Civil War, Sarah Rosetta Wakeman enlisted under the alias of
Private Lyons Wakeman. In the
history of women in the military, there are records of female U.S.
Revolutionary and Civil War soldiers who enlisted using male pseudonyms, but a
letter written by Annie Oakley to President William McKinley on April 5, 1898
may represent the earliest documentary proof of a political move towards
recognizing a woman's right to serve in the United States military. Oakley,
sharpshooter and star in the Buffalo Bill Show, wrote a letter to President
William McKinley on April 5, 1898 "offering the government the services of
a company of 50 'lady sharpshooters' who would provide their own arms and
ammunition should war break out with Spain." The Spanish-American War did
occur, but Oakley's offer was not accepted.
The Woman’s Army Auxiliary Corps was established in the United States in
1941. The Woman’s Naval Reserve and
Marine Corps Women’s Reserve were created during World War II. In July 1943 a
bill was signed removing "auxiliary" from the Women’s Army Auxiliary
Corps, making it an official part of the regular army. In 1944 WACs arrived in the
Pacific and landed in Normandy on D-Day. During the war, 67 Army nurses and 16
Navy nurses were captured and spent three years as Japanese prisoners of war.
There were 350,000 American women who served during World War II and 16 were
killed in action; in total, they gained over 1,500 medals, citations and
commendations. Law 625, The Women's
Armed Services Act of 1948, was signed by President Truman, allowing women to
serve in the armed forces in fully integrated units during peacetime, with only
the WAC remaining a separate female unit. During the Korean War, women serving
in Korea numbered 120,000. Records
regarding American women serving in the Vietnam War are vague. However, it is
recorded that 600 women served in the country as part of the Air Force, along
with 500 members of the WAC, and over 6,000 medical personnel and support
staff. In 1974, the first six women
aviators earned their wings as Navy pilots. The Congressionally mandated
prohibition on women in combat places limitations on the pilots' advancement, but
at least two retired as captains. On December 20, 1989, Captain Linda L.
Bray, 29, became the first woman to command American soldiers in battle, during
the invasion of Panama. She was assigned to lead a force of 30 men and women
military police officers to capture a kennel holding guard dogs that was
defended by elements of the Panamanian Defense Forces. The 1991 Persian Gulf War proved to be the pivotal time for the
role of women in the United States Armed Forces to come to the attention of the
world media. Over 40,000 women served in almost every role the armed forces had
to offer. However, while many came under fire, they were not permitted to
participate in deliberate ground engagements. Despite this, there are many
reports of women engaging enemy forces during the conflict. Today, women can
serve on American combat ships, including in command roles. There is a plan to
allow women to serve on submarines. During Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation
Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan, more than two hundred thousand women have
served, of which 152 were killed of which 84 were killed by enemy action. The Ike Skelton National Defense
Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 directed the Department of Defense (DoD)
to review the laws, policies and regulations restricting the service of female
service members. As a result, DoD submitted the Review of Laws, Policies and
Regulations Restricting the Service of Female members in the U.S. Armed Forces,
popularly known as the "Women in Service Review", to Congress in February
2012. According to the review, DoD intends to eliminate co-location exclusion
(opening over 13,000 Army positions to women); grant exceptions to policy to
assign women in open occupations to direct ground combat units at the battalion
level; assess the suitability and relevance of direct ground combat unit
assignment prohibition to inform future policy based on the results of these
exceptions to policy; and to further develop gender-neutral physical standards
for closed specialties. On January
23, 2013, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta removed the military's ban on women
serving in combat, which was instituted in 1994.
